# How Learning Happens  ## Metadata - Author: [[Paul A. Kirschner and Carl Hendrick]] - Full Title: How Learning Happens - Category: #books ## Highlights - So teachers need to be aware of two key points: first, what the student already knows and second, how newly presented information will build on what they know and whether it will overload their working memory beyond that magic number. ([Location 451](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=451)) - Simply put, if students are having to remember more than four new things at once, they’re likely to become overloaded and engage in off-task behaviours or worse still, lose confidence and motivation. ([Location 469](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=469)) - Gestalt idea of learning, namely that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Our memories are more than a collection of isolated facts and experiences, but are organised and structured in a meaningful way. Tulving also emphasises the importance of organising and structuring of memories, with episodic memories being organised in a temporal sequence (e.g. proximity between/contiguity of events in time) and semantic memories according to meaning. Learning is the combination of the two. ([Location 878](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=878)) - Use elaborative encoding strategies such as creating vivid mental images (see Chapter 13 from HTH on generative learning strategies) to improve memory consolidation and retrieval. Use cues or prompts that strengthen and activate the relevant memory traces between the episodic and semantic memories of what should be learnt. You can encourage students to remember past events and use this information to plan future actions (Tulving later called this mental time travel), which relies on the integration of episodic and semantic memory. ([Location 930](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=930)) - The act of remembering is an active and partly reconstructive process. Schemata are how the brain organises knowledge. Schemata are dynamic and not static. ([Location 1149](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1149)) - metacognition, which was coined by Flavell in the 1970s and is often simplified as “learning to learn”. The idea is a simple one, namely that becoming conscious of the process of learning and being able to plan, monitor, and evaluate that process, the learner is harnessing a powerful set of techniques to master any give domain. ([Location 1230](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1230)) ## New highlights added April 12, 2024 at 8:53 AM - cognitive schema is “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning”. See it as a way of organising knowledge; a mental structure of already learnt and available knowledge, skills, and even ideas that is used for organising and perceiving new information. ([Location 1495](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1495)) - JEAN PIAGET distinguished two important processes in their development: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process by which new knowledge is inserted into existing knowledge schemata while accommodation is the process by which existing knowledge schemata are adapted to the new knowledge. ([Location 1557](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1557)) - While an expert can be given a problem to be solved after having been taught a certain technique or principle, a novice should be given a more structured approach to using that principle for solving the same problem, for example in the form of a worked example. ([Location 1574](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1574)) - MENTAL EFFORT is about how hard a person tries to actively process presented information. It is a combination of perceived demand characteristics (how complex the task is combined with the level of expertise of the person carrying out the task), perceived self-efficacy (the extent that one believes that (s)he is capable of performing in a specific manner to attain specific goals), and level/depth of information processing (the degree to which a person encodes/recodes a source) such that the first two influence the last which determines the amount of invested mental effort. ([Location 1706](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1706)) - this chapter, John R. Anderson’s Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT*) theory explains how novices begin with trial and error (weak problem-solving) and advance as expertise increases. ([Location 1902](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1902)) - Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 1996), who spoke of learning as a process of assimilation and accommodation. Ausubel’s major hypothesis was that learning and retention are facilitated when the learner has acquired a meaningful cognitive framework that allows new information to be organised, assimilated, and subsumed in what is already known. ([Location 2615](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2615)) - New knowledge must be incorporated into existing structures Rosenshine’s principles of instruction ([Location 2678](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2678)) ## New highlights added April 12, 2024 at 8:54 PM - The Einstellung effect: “this is the way we’ve always done it.” This effect refers to the mechanised state of mind where someone will use an automated way of solving a problem, despite the fact that a simpler and often more efficient method is available. ([Location 1986](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=1986)) - Becoming skilled means converting declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge through a middle process called knowledge compilation. Cognitive skills are encoded by a set of productions, which are organised according to a hierarchical goal structure. Novices to a specific domain use weak problem-solving skills such as analogy, trial-and-error search, or means–ends analysis. In certain domains, where there is a focus on procedural knowledge, the need for formal instruction decreases. For example, you can’t really be told how to ride a bike. A big part of transforming declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge is about creating a series of rules such as “if-then” statements. ([Location 2099](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2099)) ## New highlights added April 14, 2024 at 11:16 AM - In other words the fittest plant or animal is one that is fitter than others, and fit to leave as many copies of itself as possible in successive generations. ([Location 2200](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2200)) - Systematic Problem-Solving Using both primary and secondary biological knowledge ([Location 2225](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2225)) - Students are “naturally” able to develop social skills (biologically primary (folk) knowledge) but must learn appropriate domain-specific application of these skills (biologically secondary knowledge). ([Location 2269](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2269)) - These so-called learning styles have been exposed as nonsense in research time after time. There are no “image thinkers” or “language thinkers”. Everyone thinks with both systems and everyone benefits from using both. The more often you use the two systems together, the stronger the trace in your memory and the better you will remember and thus will learn. ([Location 2408](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2408)) - To ensure that learners have the necessary basis for what they’re supposed to learn, even when studying something new, he introduced the concept of the advance organiser; a text or presentation at a higher level of generality, inclusiveness, and abstraction, which is presented before the learning event and which forms a conceptual framework for learning the new information ([Location 2563](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2563)) - Ideational Framework Conceptual scaffold that incorporates more detailed knowledge Obliterative Subsumption When a more specific idea becomes indistinguishable from its subsumer until it’s forgotten ([Location 2602](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2602)) - Self-regulated learning is not just an internal process but rather a combination of personal, behavioural, and environmental factors. Independent learning is probably a bad way for a novice to become an independent learner. Telling learners to “do your best” is not effective. Long-term goals should be broken down into intermediate goals and most importantly, they should be specific. Teacher modelling and verbal persuasion can have a big impact on student self-efficacy. Students who know more in a particular domain are better able to think metacognitively about their learning in that domain. Make sure that learners have the knowledge and skills necessary for self-regulating their learning. ([Location 2957](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=2957)) - As the authors neatly put it: “in challenging situations, helpless children might be pursuing the performance goal of proving their ability, whereas the mastery-oriented children might be pursuing the learning goal of improving their ability” (Dweck & Leggett, 1988, p. 259). ([Location 3092](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=3092)) ## New highlights added April 15, 2024 at 7:42 AM - vital aspect of attribution theory is the extent to which individuals feel they have ownership over a situation. If a student has a misconception about their academic performance, citing internal causes such as a lack of ability or external ones like teacher bias as a reason for underachievement, it can be transformative to shift their thinking towards variables that they can do something about such as increased effort, skills, and knowledge, all of which they can change with the right approach. Ownership Students need to feel they have control ([Location 3609](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=3609)) - There are two different goals that play a role in how the learner studies: they can want to master a subject or they can want to perform well. Both goals can have positive consequences: the mastery goal learners are often intrinsically motivated, the performance goal-oriented learners often achieve higher marks. Learning because you are trying to avoid failure (or even not mastering the subject) has negative effects on the learning processes of students. Students can pursue both orientations (i.e. mastery and performance) at the same time. Teach students that making mistakes is neither scary nor bad because you can learn from those mistakes. This means that you need to make the classroom a safe place so that students will take the risks involved in learning. When you give your students a learning task, design them just beyond their current ability level but within their reach. Try to encourage performance goal approach learners to learn in a deeper way (i.e. not just memorise, but understand) and to discourage “avoiders” from choosing the easiest way for the easiest tasks. ([Location 3814](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=3814)) ## New highlights added April 21, 2024 at 10:24 PM - Subsumptive Sequencing General to complex Spiral curriculum Revisiting content with increasing complexity each time ([Location 4746](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=4746)) - FIGURE 21.3 A diagrammatic representation of a set of lessons (Reigeluth & Stein, 1983, p. 359) Takeaways Begin a course by “epitomising” a key concept or idea and then zooming in or out using it to build connections in the learner’s knowledge base. Use summarisers at the end of a lesson to consolidate knowledge and relate to the “bigger picture” through quizzes. Use analogies to relate new knowledge to familiar concepts and ideas. Sequence your lessons/curricula either from simple to complex, general to detailed, or concrete to abstract. Once the learner has a sound understanding of a domain of knowledge, then allow them more control over which areas they need to zoom in on to consolidate knowledge. ([Location 4869](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=4869)) - The techniques include elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, summarization, highlighting (or underlining), the keyword mnemonic, imagery use for text learning, rereading, practice testing, distributed practice, and interleaved practice. ([Location 5855](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=5855)) - TABLE 26.1 The ten learning techniques studied by Dunlosky et al. (2013) Technique Description 1 Elaborative interrogation Generating an explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or concept is true 2 Self-explanation Explaining how new information is related to known information, or explaining steps taken during problem solving 3 Summarization Writing summaries (of various lengths) of to-be-learned texts 4 Highlighting/underlining Marking potentially important portions of to-be-learned materials while reading 5 Keyword mnemonic Using keywords and mental imagery to associate verbal materials 6 Imagery for text Attempting to form mental images of text materials while reading or listening 7 Rereading Restudying text material again after an initial reading 8 Practice testing Self-testing or taking practice tests over to-be-learned material 9 Distributed practice Implementing a schedule of practice that spreads out study activities over time 10 Interleaved practice Implementing a schedule of practice that mixes different kinds of problems, or a schedule of study that mixes different kinds of material, within a single study session Highlighting and rereading don’t work ([Location 5889](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=5889)) - In this sixth part we deal with some aspects of that social learning environment. This section focuses on different social influences on learning such as situated cognition, cognitive apprenticeship, and communities of learners. ([Location 6100](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=6100)) ## New highlights added June 9, 2024 at 9:38 PM - Communities of practice require three elements: domain, community, and practice. Belonging to a community of practice means having engagement, imagination, and alignment. ([Location 6954](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=6954)) - research. Wim Veen and Ben Vrakking (2006) followed suit, introducing the term homo zappiëns to describe a new generation of students who learned significantly differently from their predecessors. They claim that homos zappiëns independently and without instruction develop the metacognitive skills needed for discovery learning, networked learning, experimentation, collaborative learning, active learning, self-directed learning, and problem-based learning. ([Location 7782](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=7782)) - In an original study for UNESCO (2010), Rosenshine distilled 17 research-based principles of instruction but most well-known are his Ten Principles of Instruction published in the American Educator (2012). ([Location 8013](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=8013)) - The five desirable difficulties were: interleaving, contextual interference, spaced practice, diminishing feedback, and tests for learning (i.e. retrieval practice). ([Location 8029](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=8029)) - A lethal mutation is an idea or a practice that is prompted by sound scientific evidence, but is implemented in a way that reduces, or even completely negates, its effectiveness. Lethal mutations can be reversed over time with reflection, effort, and change, but prevention truly is better than a cure. “Cognitive science needs to be understood more broadly than just a checklist of strategies to implement in order to reduce the chance of so-called lethal mutations” (Perry et al., 2021, p. 241). To avoid creating lethal mutations of evidence-informed practice, schools need to think carefully about the key psychological bases and pedagogical strategies at the core of an intervention. Just because a strategy works in one context or even one subject area, doesn’t mean it will work in all. Using a good strategy wrong is often worse than not using it at all. ([Location 8252](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B0CKFJL2M5&location=8252))