Notes and highlights for Visible Learning and the Science of How We Learn Hattie, John,Yates, Gregory C. R. ================================================================================================================= --- Introduction ------------ ### Highlight (yellow) - Location 288 knowledge ### Highlight (yellow) - Location 295 ### Highlight (yellow) - Location 311 confidence , the Part 1 Learning within classrooms --------------------------------- ### Highlight (yellow) - 1 Why don't students like learning at school? The Willingham thesis > Page 5 · Location 380 the human brain does not naturally want to think. Indeed, he notes ### Highlight (yellow) - 1 Why don't students like learning at school? The Willingham thesis > Page 5 · Location 401 two well validated cognitive principles: (a) whenever called on to commit to decisions we are risk-averse and (b) bad is stronger than good. ### Highlight (yellow) - 1 Why don't students like learning at school? The Willingham thesis > Page 7 · Location 448 Certain individuals can be seen as the products of a well-socialised ### Highlight (yellow) - 2 Is knowledge an obstacle to teaching? > Page 11 · Location 532 A curious finding that has emerged repeatedly from the scientific literature is that teachers’ actual depth of knowledge of the content of what is being taught bears little relationship to the attainment level of their students. ### Highlight (yellow) - 2 Is knowledge an obstacle to teaching? > Page 12 · Location 551 experts frequently are poor communicators of what they are doing. Experts possess knowledge that is well organised but encapsulated in ways that can be understood only by people already familiar with their field. ### Highlight (yellow) - 3 The teacher-student relationship > Page 16 · Location 639 Similarly, individuals in powerful positions underestimate how others can be affected adversely by their decisions. Studies into aggression have shown that perpetrators are adroit in using a number of powerful defences. Aggressors excuse themselves, justify the actions undertaken, underestimate how much hurt they have inflicted on the other party, and blame the victim for his or her situation. On the other hand, their victims view perpetrators with resentment, anger, and experience a desire for retribution that may increase over time. ### Highlight (yellow) - 3 The teacher-student relationship > Page 18 · Location 682 Research into social psychology has found that when people disguise emotions, a good deal of emotional leakage still occurs. ### Highlight (yellow) - 3 The teacher-student relationship > Page 21 · Location 752 We began this chapter by noting the empathy gap research. We will close by citing other pertinent findings that stem from this same area in social psychology. It is a common finding that people will quickly extend a level of empathy to people they perceive as similar to themselves, but not to those seen as different. People’s feelings of empathy closely follow group allegiances, social identities, and cultural alliances. But it is also known that people can shift allegiances quickly once they join a new group. It appears we come built with a natural ability to ### Highlight (yellow) - 3 The teacher-student relationship > Page 22 · Location 774 Left to themselves, adolescents often display poor judgement in areas such as social responsibility, risk management, and future planning. Taking genuine risks can be one means of establishing one is no longer a child: but ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 26 · Location 868 It is crucial to be able to manage a successful learning environment, which, in itself, entails your exhibiting attributes that promote positive and open human communication. Students value being treated with (a) fairness, (b) dignity, and (c) individual respect. ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 27 · Location 893 Lying undermines the level of social credit or trust that an individual had secured previously. Similarly, it has been found that teachers ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 28 · Location 911 ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 28 · Location 921 Whenever a story is to be relayed, we can move from truth, to embellishment, to untruth, seamlessly ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 29 · Location 927 But these are rare individuals, often involved in forensic work, and they seem to be reading minute facial twitches (or microbursts) that people give out as they lie. ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 30 · Location 945 It is simplistic, however, to think of these as different types of students since the two orientations (mastery and ego) co-exist in all students. ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 30 · Location 951 These surveys reveal that, in some classrooms, help-seeking is discouraged. One American survey found that as students get older, they begin to equate question-asking behaviour with low ability. It has been found that lower ability students ask fewer and fewer questions with increasing grade level, with the implication that these students were learning that asking questions is a dangerous activity likely to expose one’s vulnerabilities. ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 32 · Location 1010 One major part of the feedback process involves a hidden level of posture matching (or implicit mimicry) and synchronisation of gesture. If these fail to occur, the relationship is unlikely to proceed. ### Highlight (yellow) - 4 Your personality as teacher: can your students trust you? > Page 32 · Location 1014 One of the findings from the Dunning Chapter 25 Kruger research (see ) was that highly competent ### Highlight (yellow) - 5 Time as a global indicator of classroom learning > Page 37 · Location 1098 CONCEPT MAJOR THREATS MAJOR FACILITATORS Allocated time: time as programmed on timetables, documents, or curriculum plans Interruptions, class visitors, announcements, transitions, and school-level demands such as sports days, etc. School mandated policies, but moderated by the individual teacher’s beliefs, judgements, values, and curriculum knowledge. Instructional time: the actual time genuinely available for class instruction Poor management. Lack of clear procedures being communicated. Teacher allowing time to be hijacked by low-priority matters. Managerial skill and prioritisation. Ability to focus class energies on to a clear singular focus with expressed expectations and short-term goals for the lesson. Engaged time: the time student actually pays attention to educative tasks Students not knowing what to focus upon. Student factors such as social distractions, lack of knowledge, boredom, fatigue, and work dispositions. Clear instructions given coupled with meaningful tasks, and with availability of monitoring, interpersonal encouragement, corrective feedback, and appropriate reinforcement. Academic learning time: time when student is learning and responding with a high successful level evident Despite effort, student fails to comprehend lesson structure and goals. Possible gaps in prior knowledge. Task set is too challenging, and student is unable to realign this aspect. Individualised guidance. Encouragement aimed at enhancing pride in use of effort to achieve goals recognised as worthwhile. ### Highlight (yellow) - 5 Time as a global indicator of classroom learning > Page 38 · Location 1132 But the idea that there could be a four-fold difference in individualised time accumulations going on in your class, right under your nose, is something of which many teachers would have virtually no awareness. ### Highlight (yellow) - 5 Time as a global indicator of classroom learning > Page 41 · Location 1192 Knowledge integration takes time, energy, varied activities, and many opportunities to make connections from one topic to another. In streamlining the curriculum, we inevitably reduce opportunities for students to reflect on the connections from one topic to another. ### Highlight (yellow) - 5 Time as a global indicator of classroom learning > Page 43 · Location 1243 Capable university students study efficiently, rather than spend extended time (Plant, Ericsson, Hill, & Asberg, 2005). ■ Cut down curricula seriously disrupt deep processing ### Highlight (yellow) - 6 The recitation method and the nature of classroom learning > Page 44 · Location 1263 Lessons can be analysed in terms of cycles of structuring, soliciting, responding, and reacting. ### Highlight (yellow) - 6 The recitation method and the nature of classroom learning > Page 47 · Location 1328 One of the major principles of learning is that a learner needs to make an active response to the source of learning. This idea runs through all theories ### Highlight (yellow) - 6 The recitation method and the nature of classroom learning > Page 48 · Location 1345 One theory reflects the notion of ego depletion and a failure in self-regulation (see Chapter 26 ). That is, one’s ability to focus intensively (or to try hard) literally runs out through biological exhaustion, indexed by glucose levels available to the brain. ### Highlight (yellow) - 6 The recitation method and the nature of classroom learning > Page 48 · Location 1349 The second theory is called cascading inattention . This reflects the role of overload in preventing the mind from following the story being told. ### Highlight (yellow) - 6 The recitation method and the nature of classroom learning > Page 49 · Location 1367 For example, consider the Paideia model of teaching, which considers that there should be three major parts to learning: didactic instruction, Socratic questioning, and coached product – and each should consume about one third of classroom time. Didactic ### Highlight (yellow) - 7 Teaching for automaticity in basic academic skill > Page 58 · Location 1562 There is no meaningful cleft between ### Highlight (yellow) - 7 Teaching for automaticity in basic academic skill > Page 59 · Location 1586 The student is forced into regarding academic demands as problems to tackle recurrently with mental techniques known under two descriptive labels (a) means , and (b) divide-and-conquer strategies . These terms refer to the mind having to use effort to break larger tasks into smaller units that can be tackled in sequence. ### Highlight (yellow) - 7 Teaching for automaticity in basic academic skill > Page 61 · Location 1638 to use problem-solving skills on a continual basis, at much risk of ego depletion. The paradox is that mastery of ### Highlight (yellow) - 7 Teaching for automaticity in basic academic skill > Page 61 · Location 1646 Whatever a child spends a great deal of time doing, then skilfulness and automaticity will follow to support the fundamental cognitive demands of that very same activity. But if an activity does not take place, then development cannot proceed. ### Highlight (yellow) - 8 The role of feedback > Page 64 · Location 1703 When we survey teachers, the following dimensions, the ten Cs, emerge. In the teachers’ view, feedback consists of: ■ comments, and more instructions about how to proceed ■ clarification ■ criticism ■ confirmation ■ content development ■ constructive reflection ■ correction (focus on pros and cons) ■ cons and pros of the work ■ commentary (especially on an overall evaluation) ■ criterion relative to a standard. ### Highlight (yellow) - 8 The role of feedback > Page 67 · Location 1783 Praise makes people happier, sometimes, and in some places. It can steer you toward wanting to do certain things, or induce you to stay in the field. But it does not assist you to learn. ### Highlight (yellow) - 8 The role of feedback > Page 68 · Location 1794 ### Highlight (yellow) - 8 The role of feedback > Page 70 · Location 1840 ### Highlight (yellow) - 8 The role of feedback > Page 70 · Location 1841 Recall that one of the principles allied to the Willingham thesis ( Chapter 1 ) is that we are motivated by perceivable and closable knowledge gaps but turned off by knowledge chasms. ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 72 · Location 1893 ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 73 · Location 1906 This cueing process is called the principle of ostension (i.e., showing and highlighting good examples), ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 73 · Location 1907 principles underpinning species evolution (see box at the end of this chapter). ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 73 · Location 1923 When teaching, experts tend to be poor at demonstrating underlying progressive steps, ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 73 · Location 1928 The essential components of highly structured lessons have been described by Barak Rosenshine (2012) in terms of lessons serving a coherent set of functions that include initial review, formal presentation, guided practice, feedback, independent practice, and follow-up review. ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 76 · Location 1994 Just what is the difference between traditional teaching and teaching using cognitive task analysis? The CTA scripts were constructed collaboratively by a group of another three experts who focused upon procedural or ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 77 · Location 2018 Direct instruction in thinking in highly disciplined ways allows the mind to acquire and organise knowledge in areas that require deep understanding and complex cognition. ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 78 · Location 2032 But there is little basis to suggest that personal discovery within itself assists a person to actually learn. In fact, additional load imposed by the need to explore and find things out can detract from our capacity to assimilate the information uncovered. This was established through the research into cognitive load as reviewed in Chapter 16 . The discovery learning process demands a high level of non-productive mental effort, which could be more profitably directed to genuine knowledge building. ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 79 · Location 2057 remember, what I do I understand. ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 79 · Location 2059 ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 79 · Location 2070 to be experienced firsthand. If one is obliged to learn through personal resources, how can one ever know if the knowledge gained is adequate or complete? Ironically, learning through individual discovery comes with two liabilities: (a) increases in cognitive load on the mind, while (b) cutting off the individual from factors that can place the knowledge building process onto secure socially shared foundations. When the learning to be achieved is complex, ### Highlight (yellow) - 9 Acquiring complex skills through social modelling and explicit teaching > Page 80 · Location 2080 This notion has been advanced recently by a number of social biologists: that, as a species, we adapted and evolved to transfer knowledge to, and receive knowledge from, one another . ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 84 · Location 2171 The learner must come to do with one stroke of attention what now requires half a dozen, and presently, in one still more inclusive stroke, what now requires thirty-six. He must systematize the work to be done and must acquire a system of automatic habits corresponding to the system of tasks. When he has done this he is master of the situation in his field … Finally, his whole array of habits is swiftly obedient to serve in the solution of new problems. Automatism is not genius but it is the hands and feet of genius. (p. 375) ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 85 · Location 2185 The seven basic traits of expertise In pulling together scores of studies, Glaser and Chi (1988) drew up a significant seven-point listing that has been used extensively ever since. They found that when experts are compared to novices: ■ Experts excel only in their own domain. ■ Experts perceive large and meaningful patterns. ■ Experts can work quickly and solve problems with little error. ■ Within their domain, experts possess remarkably large short-term memories. ■ Experts see and represent problems at a deeper or principled level, whereas novices focus on superficial aspects. ■ Experts spend relatively more time analysing problems carefully and qualitatively. ■ Experts have strong skills in self-monitoring. We need to expand in depth upon these seven key points. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 85 · Location 2199 Expertise hinges on knowledge the person has developed within the relevant context, rather than any general skills or ability. It has been found repeatedly that within specific areas, general ability measures, such as the IQ, fail to predict level of expertise attained. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 86 · Location 2202 In truth, the experts are limited to around the same number of chunks as novices. But what is often extraordinary is the amount of information contained within a single meaningful chunk. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 86 · Location 2217 While such extreme effects are unlikely to be found often, it is known that once people become highly knowledgeable within a domain, their short-term memory spans appear to well exceed natural processing capacities. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 87 · Location 2230 Their awareness of patterns and their extensive store of knowledge mean that they are not misled by surface features. Instead, their minds automatically shift into seeing the deeper principles that are at stake. They focus upon the underlying dynamics and can be highly sensitive to aspects that novices have trouble even apprehending. This fits with the second point above (seeing large patterns) in that experts are very quick to see connections and relationships between events that appear disjointed to other people. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 87 · Location 2236 When situations permit, experts appear Hence, when it comes to more difficult problems, experts give an appearance of moving slowly as they move into deep deliberation mode. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 87 · Location 2240 a phenomenon known as the quiet eye period . Although first discovered in golf, it became apparent that quiet eye training can be applied to any activity involving making careful judgements. ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 88 · Location 2244 They are adept at keeping track of where they are up to, and adjust strategies whenever a key sub goal does not eventuate. Experts can harbour several planned agendas, and switch between them. If ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 89 · Location 2265 ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 89 · Location 2277 Many of the high-level skills shown by experts have a basis in unconscious processing ### Highlight (yellow) - 10 Just what does expertise look like? > Page 89 · Location 2282 In short, introspection is not to be trusted when it comes to how experts explain themselves to non- ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 93 · Location 2349 Studies into occupational skills, for example, often find virtually no relationship between measures of work performance and years on the job. ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 93 · Location 2356 thousands of hours spent honing skills. However, the practice involved is that of a special kind: deliberate practice ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 95 · Location 2393 It is driven by a series of progressively more complex goals. It is supervised by a series of coaches or teachers who emphasise the relationship between hard work, technical perfection, and success. ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 99 · Location 2480 Practising an activity allows you to shift control from a conscious to an automatic function, in order to stop developing ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 99 · Location 2499 It is well documented that most students initially identified as gifted children frequently do not emerge as gifted adults. ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 99 · Location 2501 Development is the natural outcome of many interacting factors. Aspects such as motivation, goal setting, persistence, deliberate practice, personal identifications, and knowledge building, all exert subtle but powerful effects in people’s lives over time in a manner independent from tests of precocious talent taken at an early age. ### Highlight (yellow) - 11 Just how does expertise develop? > Page 100 · Location 2519 Skill development programs often take place in short blocks of around 20 minutes of intense activity, followed by short rest periods. Hence, an athlete’s three-hour training session might have cycles of intense effort and programmed rest breaks. Many elite performers are known to take short naps during training sessions. ### Highlight (yellow) - 12 Expertise in the domain of classroom teaching > Page 108 · Location 2684 But what was occurring was that the more expert a teacher became, the more such plans became familiar scripts and routines in the head. However, they are not fixed scripts, but ones that permit considerable variation and improvisation. Their knowledge base is highly procedural in that many of their skills have a basis in making available a range of viable actions, rather than in believing there exists just one ### Highlight (yellow) - 12 Expertise in the domain of classroom teaching > Page 109 · Location 2702 Part 2 Learning foundations --------------------------- ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 114 · Location 2768 most human learning situations, blocks of 15 to 30 minutes are effective in cost-benefit terms. The effect of distributed practice is sometimes also called the spacing effect. ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 114 · Location 2777 interference ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 115 · Location 2802 elaboration, passive ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 117 · Location 2835 ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 118 · Location 2855 ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 122 · Location 2951 There are no known spatial or capacity limits on long-term memory. Actually, the principle of prior knowledge even suggests the opposite: the more knowledge you have the easier it is to learn even more. In the course of aging, the mind may lose certain agilities, notably those to do with fast accessing, but the volume of material stored is not affected primarily by aging itself. ### Highlight (yellow) - 13 How knowledge is acquired > Page 123 · Location 2970 Within your mind you could try a bit of CRIME. These are chunking, rehearsal , imagery, mnemonics, and elaboration . ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 129 · Location 3117 The notion ( of idea implies linkages at the level of conceptual meanings rather than simple strings. As new words are learnt, they are necessarily tied to your previous vocabulary. New words employ the same phonology and structure as old words, but permit a refinement of ideas as properties are added into your mental network. For instance, you may not have encountered the term schema before now. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 129 · Location 3122 We know that people process information at the level of ideas when they no longer recall the exact word forms used. When we relate ideas to other people we express the ideas in our own language and hence meaning takes precedence. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 130 · Location 3151 schemata acquisition implies graduated refinement that can continue to develop over many years. Schema refinement is likely to begin with the person realising that his or her existing way of organising knowledge is not fully adequate. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 131 · Location 3172 Acquiring mental models . The conditions under which we acquire new mental models are poorly understood. However, such conditions are known to involve experiences of challenge and social cueing such as exposure to highly competent individuals who display abstract thinking. As individuals develop expertise over time (see Chapter 11 ), they develop a large knowledge base that enables them to activate mental models with relative ease. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 132 · Location 3182 To put this another way, the basic idea of evolution, as assimilated by a bright 7-year-old, is the building block for a highly differentiated explanatory model of all life forms which the same student needs when studying Biology 101 at university. The student’s notion of evolution has itself evolved through successive stages of schema refinement, to the point where complex mental simulations become possible. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 133 · Location 3226 Although the taxonomies might supply possible frameworks for instructional planning and for devising assessments, you should be aware that the mental process underpinning learning does not align with such sequences. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 133 · Location 3228 they called the SOLO (structure of observed learning outcomes) taxonomy. It posits four levels: one idea, many ideas, relate the ideas, and extend the ideas. The first two levels are about surface and the latter two about deeper knowing. This taxonomy highlights the importance of basing deeper knowing on surface information, which is often forgotten when teachers try and teach critical or enquiry learning as a generic tool. ### Highlight (yellow) - 14 How knowledge is stored in the mind > Page 135 · Location 3266 ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 137 · Location 3300 We take on board incidental features of a social modelling stimulus, chameleon-like, without explicitly realising how this model has influenced us. ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 137 · Location 3309 German researcher, Gird Gigerenzer, has described how baseball coaches can give faulty instruction about ball catching skills, being unaware of what the brain does to compute where a travelling ball will land. There is no evidence to suggest that this skill can be taught as a set of verbal codes to young children. In fact, people simply do not know how to catch balls, and are unaware of what their eyes, legs and hands are doing to allow this to happen. This lack of know-ledge occurs despite having successfully caught balls over a lifetime. However, implicit learning extends well beyond motor skills, and can apply to how the brain processes information. Indeed, much information can be assimilated from the environment even though the individual cannot immediately describe in words what has been learnt. ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 138 · Location 3327 The authors concluded that, ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 139 · Location 3341 Indeed, by some definitions, intelligence is knowing what to do when you do not know what to do. ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 139 · Location 3357 The unconscious mind might be registering the pattern in the form of a correlation or likelihood of association. Not until this correlation becomes sufficiently strong does the conscious mind fix upon it, take a reading, and then articulate the relationship in words. Up to that point the relationship is under the radar. We clearly know many things we do not know we know. Implicit learning results from regularities within the natural world. ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 141 · Location 3395 Metaphorically, gesture can be thought of as a way-station in the transfer from implicit to explicit thought. Before you can express things in words, you can still use your hands as expressive tools. Gestures can reveal thoughts sitting on the edge of your competence. You can note how some people, as adults, do speak with their hands. Such individuals are often highly successful communicators. ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 141 · Location 3401 that when students gesticulate and use their hands as they speak, their understanding of what they are saying can move to a deeper level, and their overall performance on academic tasks can be enhanced ### Highlight (yellow) - 15 Does learning need to be conscious, and what is the hidden role played by gesture? > Page 142 · Location 3412 But most importantly from our view, is that gesture is an early marker that learning is taking place. Knowledge can be expressed in gesture before it can be expressed in words. ### Highlight (yellow) - 16 The impact of cognitive load > Page 147 · Location 3511 ### Highlight (yellow) - 16 The impact of cognitive load > Page 147 · Location 3513 automaticity Huntington’s disease ### Highlight (yellow) - 16 The impact of cognitive load > Page 151 · Location 3594 Among the findings that have emerged repeatedly in the CLT research is that problem solving is unlikely to be an effective method to employ if you are attempting to teach a knowledge schema. ### Highlight (yellow) - 16 The impact of cognitive load > Page 151 · Location 3610 This practice allows for a logical transfer process where learners shift from initially acquiring their knowledge, to seeing how this knowledge can be applied. The worked example effect now stands as one of the most robust findings from applied psychology research. ### Highlight (yellow) - 16 The impact of cognitive load > Page 155 · Location 3699 Review Table 16.1 , which details 11 major principles stemming from cognitive load research findings. Note that the principle of coherence says that novices learn from clear and direct instruction, without peripheral elaboration. Nevertheless, this finding is ### Highlight (yellow) - 17 Your memory and how it develops > Page 158 · Location 3746 Apart from our species, animals live in the present, constantly, and could be ### Highlight (yellow) - 17 Your memory and how it develops > Page 162 · Location 3852 paradox seems apparent in that although teachers make it plain that they expect students to accurately remember information, there is surprisingly little instruction taking place about how to remember. Students might be told to remember, but appear to receive almost no guidance in how to remember. ### Highlight (yellow) - 18 Mnemonics as sport, art, and instructional tools > Page 168 · Location 3978 The more serious participants are involved in the constant attempt to invent new and more complex mental schemes. The goal is to outperform one’s competitors who could still be using outmoded methods. ### Highlight (yellow) - 18 Mnemonics as sport, art, and instructional tools > Page 169 · Location 4010 banned from casinos. Although such methods clearly can work ### Highlight (yellow) - 19 Analysing your students' style of learning > Page 178 · Location 4218 The idea behind cognitive style was that people would differ in the manner in which they would normally focus on stimulus information. For example, some people would tend to fixate on clearly defined aspects of their perceptual field, and be able to make clear-cut decisions based on isolating a crucial stimulus. Such individuals can be called field independent . But other people may focus instead on the whole picture, and by taking in more, they respond well to impressions or to global features. These people are said to be field dependent . It was found that pilots need to be field independent in their perceptual processing to control an aircraft. Being able to tell the vertical from the horizontal, under stress, trumps having a high IQ once behind a joystick. ### Highlight (yellow) - 19 Analysing your students' style of learning > Page 180 · Location 4275 More than one hundred years of research goes into the following idea: once we get beyond basic notions such as gender and demographic traits such as race, religion and socioeconomic status, it becomes relatively difficult to pigeonhole any one individual . ### Highlight (yellow) - 19 Analysing your students' style of learning > Page 181 · Location 4288 We know from well-controlled research that such aptitude ### Highlight (yellow) - 19 Analysing your students' style of learning > Page 183 · Location 4330 In 2010, a group of researchers, led by Professor Scott Lilienfeld of Emory University, published a remarkable compilation book entitled Fifty Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering widespread misconceptions about human behavior . ### Highlight (yellow) - 19 Analysing your students' style of learning > Page 185 · Location 4373 Explain how the notion of styles partly emerged out of (a) the apparent failure of IQ testing in pilot training, and (b) the belief that questionnaires could be used to diagnose profound differences in mental organization. ### Highlight (yellow) - 20 Multitasking: a widely held fallacy > Page 189 · Location 4469 Over a short period of time, cognitive demands on pilots escalated in accord with enhanced performance of the airplane and remarkable advances in technology. One unfortunate consequence was that pilot error became a commonly logged cause of accidents. Since that period, huge strides have been made within engineering psychology and aviation design to build aircraft control systems consistent with human capacities and limitations. ### Highlight (yellow) - 20 Multitasking: a widely held fallacy > Page 192 · Location 4517 So should teachers ever suggest such a strategy as a means to study? We would not encourage this strategy because the available studies suggest that the more one listens to music, the less attentional capacity there is available for other mental activity. ### Highlight (yellow) - 20 Multitasking: a widely held fallacy > Page 192 · Location 4522 Music can turn a boring repetitive task into a pleasant experience, and young people readily appreciate this reality. ### Highlight (yellow) - 20 Multitasking: a widely held fallacy > Page 192 · Location 4523 In terms of being able to focus, study, and learn, the recommended context has to be that of quietness and lack of external stimulation . ### Highlight (yellow) - 22 Is the Internet turning us into shallow thinkers? > Page 204 · Location 4775 FUTON stands for Full Text On the Net . Also, an influential American writer and poet, Professor Kenneth Goldsmith published a provocative essay in 2005 entitled ### Highlight (yellow) - 22 Is the Internet turning us into shallow thinkers? > Page 204 · Location 4782 This capability represents a major cultural achievement of our era. ### Highlight (yellow) - 22 Is the Internet turning us into shallow thinkers? > Page 204 · Location 4791 The plots, intrigues, propositions, and sentiments are universally human. Indeed, it is a comforting thought to appreciate that the writings of an English playwright, who lived 400 years ago, are able to be made more vivid, accessible, and meaningful to students today through the responsible classroom use of modern computer capabilities. ### Highlight (yellow) - 22 Is the Internet turning us into shallow thinkers? > Page 205 · Location 4811 But the underlying factor is prior knowledge or familiarity. When font is familiar, one reads fast, when it is not, one reads slowly. Part 3 Know thyself ------------------- ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 215 · Location 4957 Within any social situation, confidence is something that we quickly sense within other people. ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 215 · Location 4969 Since the process of knowledge building is inherently cumulative, we need to hear confidence in the student’s voice to be assured that strong foundations are in place. Parroting back superficial, low-level answers, in the absence of confidence, implies a need for more time investing in revision and consolidation work. ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 216 · Location 4974 The three levels of confidence are the (a) global level of self-esteem , (b) domain level of perceived competency , and (c) task-related level, often called self-efficacy . ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 217 · Location 5009 Our language embodies many words suggesting negative aspects related to such elevated self-esteem, for example, smug, conceited, arrogant, and boastful. ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 220 · Location 5074 Some individuals appear to hold themselves back from challenges, perhaps underestimating their capabilities. Others will push themselves forward, in a manner that suggests they overestimate their actual competencies. ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 222 · Location 5136 ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 223 · Location 5146 So should adaptive self-efficacy always match actual ability or capacity? Well, no! Self-appraisals need not be accurate to be highly motivating. Research into aspirational levels suggests it can be totally healthy to have a slightly exaggerated view of one’s ability. This becomes especially true if one can pull back without excessive penalty. A degree of overconfidence is a normal aspect of human behaviour that will motivate a person to improve skill level up to match self-beliefs. ### Highlight (yellow) - 24 Confidence and its three hidden levels > Page 224 · Location 5166 Being able to perceive the links between what you did in the past, successfully, and where the journey is going today, is the only known path to maintaining confidence-based motivation and coping. ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 231 · Location 5324 For managerial competence the correlation shows a zero relation. We repeat this interesting finding: that people who manage others in workplace situations appear, as a group, incapable of accurate self-assessment as to how well they function as managers. This issue, surely one of major concern in running a modern and just society, is reviewed in depth in a literature review paper written in 2004 by David Dunning, Chip Heath, and Jerry Suls, in the key journal Psychological Science in the Public Interest . ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 232 · Location 5345 THE BARNUM PERSONALITY PROFILE ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 234 · Location 5391 Paradoxically, it is easier to construct a coherent story when there are fewer pieces to fit into the puzzle. Our comforting conviction that the world makes sense rests on a secure foundation: our almost unlimited ability to ignore our ignorance. Daniel Kahneman (American psychologist, 2011, p. 201) ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 237 · Location 5465 ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 238 · Location 5467 Self-images need to be positive, but holier-than-thou perspective is a gravely unsound strategy, one destined for social disaster. Huge problems emerge when your self-image begins to diverge from the perception and attitudes of key people within your world. ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 238 · Location 5470 As a teacher, this is one hard lesson you have to help individual students to recognise, in the goal of social integration and life skills. ### Highlight (yellow) - 25 Self-enhancement and the dumb-and-dumber effect > Page 239 · Location 5498 In the absence of apprehending appropriate feedback, the individual’s aspirations and conscious simulations of reality will be given over solely to natural egotism, and this is not a secure basis for life fulfilment in any modern society. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 244 · Location 5602 Self-control is not only a matter of making sensible choices in the first instance, but hinges on capacity to sustain goal-directed action over time. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 244 · Location 5607 We live within a society that requires continual efforts in the direction of personal discipline. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 246 · Location 5643 ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 247 · Location 5670 In many cases relationships from childhood self-control to adult outcomes were stronger than relationships with IQ, but especially so in the area of personal financial management. If you want to predict which children will become both wealthy and healthy in their adulthood, their ability to exercise self-control appears the most powerful predictive factor we know about. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 249 · Location 5707 Unclear instructions that you attempt to follow, but then are rescinded unpredictably, will ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 250 · Location 5727 The common thread behind these, and many other studies, is that we have a temporary store of ego strength, a capacity we call upon when engaged in activities that require us to apply self-control. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 252 · Location 5778 People who rate high in trait self-control are found to plan ahead and take steps to avoid need for extraordinary exertions. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 253 · Location 5800 For example, it will not hurt to take one night off studying to watch a movie, but the university student who does this three times every week is likely to fail. ### Highlight (yellow) - 26 Achieving self-control > Page 255 · Location 5854 one finding support in the existing scientific literature. Instead, what has emerged is a conception of self-control locked directly into social sensitivity. People who score highly on self-control tests are people holding down social relationships that they strongly defend to maintain long-term benefits. ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 259 · Location 5940 Smiling can be recognised from over a 100 metres away, and appears to be the most easily identified emotional cue over such distances. ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 260 · Location 5951 Plainly, as far as being successful in life is concerned, this ability to display your face with a quick and sincere smile, at the appropriate moment, appears to be a remarkably powerful facility. ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 261 · Location 5987 Responsive people smile back in a fast, automatic, contagion-like manner. Such interactions occur within a half second, which implies that conscious thought is not involved. ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 262 · Location 6001 There is also a meaningful literature indicating that human positivity, with smiling playing a pivotal role, works through three degrees of social separation . ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 264 · Location 6047 However, another significant discovery about the smile is that it is correlated with comprehension and understanding. ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 264 · Location 6061 These findings suggest that teachers are likely to use low-level smiling as feedback cues implicated in interpersonal interactions. The processes involved are likely to be unconscious, but potent. Your students’ faces put out vital cues about their level of understanding. ### Highlight (yellow) - 27 Neuroscience of the smile: a fundamental tool in teaching > Page 267 · Location 6126 What is now known to happen is that you learn to associate a specific person’s behavioural cues with a specific intention that you believe they are harbouring. In other words, you begin to read the other person’s normal motive patterns. Thus, once you get to know someone, you interpret their faces, movement patterns, and gestures with accuracy, since you know implicitly what they are striving to achieve. ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 271 · Location 6228 When it comes to being aware of how we negotiate the tricky task of getting on with other people, we are truly strangers unto ourselves. ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 272 · Location 6231 Long fixations can be used only for specific purposes such as power displays or sexual intent. ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 272 · Location 6243 Try watching two people walking together, for example, down a corridor. When relationships are positive and friendly, there is a visible synchrony at work. The two move in step with each other. But the parties themselves have no awareness of what they are doing. ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 273 · Location 6257 ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 274 · Location 6297 People who cooperate, and get on well, will show a high level of this behavioural mirroring. It has been found that when people attempt to make friends, then they mimic the other person strongly. ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 274 · Location 6300 fact, mimicry is so automatic that it normally increases when people are placed under conditions of cognitive load. ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 277 · Location 6351 the same cortical circuits that are implicated in executing an action respond also when observing someone else executing that action . ### Highlight (yellow) - 28 The surprising advantages of being a social chameleon > Page 277 · Location 6365 However, the evidence suggests that, within any teaching situation, your interpersonal gestures and bodily movements assume enormous importance in the brains of your students (i.e., ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 281 · Location 6428 The saga associated with inattentional blindness (or IB) research involves the modern flight simulator as used in pilot training. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 281 · Location 6435 alarming high percentage of pilots would still attempt to land their craft. Although the industry cannot acknowledge such data, apparently some 30 per cent of trainee pilots did not see the runway blockage until too late. Furthermore, this phenomenon was not unique to trainees as it was noted also with experienced pilots, 25 per cent in one study. Pilots pay close attention to aspects such as airspeed, height, drift, engine power, through an array of critical instruments. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 281 · Location 6438 Paying attention to this complex world, they may glance at the runway, but apparently fail to see what is there, right before their eyes. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 283 · Location 6470 His or her mind is literally taken over by the demands of the situation. To land an airplane represents one of the most demanding tasks any human can undertake. The number of variables that come into play during a landing, but which could demand sensitive adjustments, exceeds natural human processing levels. After several hundred landings the experience may become procedural. But to the novice, the mental load is immense, the most mindful experience that he or she has ever experienced. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 285 · Location 6515 Either way, it seems that experts in a field are going to be less likely to suffer IB effects. This idea is consistent with the notion that expertise brings with it the ability to work efficiently but still use less brainpower to achieve similar performance goals when compared to others. If an expert’s performance is inherently less effortful, there is greater spare capacity, more in reserve, to serve as resources available to cope with the unexpected. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 285 · Location 6524 Hence, someone can be told something quite clearly. But when the mind is elsewhere and the working memory is fully loaded, then this input message may be filtered out so adroitly that it may as well never have occurred. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 285 · Location 6528 is not just a silly example of human foibles. For one thing, it is a trait taken advantage of by professional magicians who skilfully exploit IB tendencies with attention misdirection techniques. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 286 · Location 6537 We are born with an ability to focus on tasks and goals that totally take over our minds for short periods. ### Highlight (yellow) - 29 Invisible gorillas, inattentional blindness, and paying attention > Page 286 · Location 6546 ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 290 · Location 6619 One mind is conscious, but the other is unconscious. One is alert and aware. The other is a robot. Thankfully, this is your friendly and benign servant, your inner robot . ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 293 · Location 6686 Information within this box stems from Tom Vanderbilt’s (2008) book Traffic: Why we drive the way we do and what it says about us . He surveyed the extensive research body into the psychology and engineering of car travel. While a serious scientific book, it is written with much humour. For instance, the first four chapters are entitled (a) how traffic messes with our heads, (b) why you are not as good a driver as you think you are, (c) how our eyes and mind betray us on the road, and (d) why ants do not get into traffic jams and humans do. ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 294 · Location 6720 Take note of the final point: that one system gives you confidence or self-efficacy. But with what might seem a cruel joke, the other system threatens to deprive you of that very same commodity. Such is human nature. ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 297 · Location 6769 Being a teacher involves long hours of teaching, and it is your System 1 that enables you to sustain strong and skilful performances over time in what is inherently a highly social situation. ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 299 · Location 6814 Although presentation order effects can be powerful (the last one seen is advantaged), the conscious mind does not know this. ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 301 · Location 6861 there is a significant body of data indicating that successful marriages are characterised by partners’ ability to activate such relationship repair strategies. ### Highlight (yellow) - 30 Thinking fast and thinking slow: your debt to the inner robot > Page 303 · Location 6918 Experts slow down dramatically whenever they encounter obstacles. This is a lesson in life. ### Highlight (yellow) - 31 IKEA, effort, and valuing > Page 307 · Location 7001 In one study, a discounted energy drink was less effective in refreshing people than the same product when people paid the full price. It is apparent that when people are working towards difficult goals, they expect to have to achieve them at some cost and effort. ### Highlight (yellow) - 31 IKEA, effort, and valuing > Page 307 · Location 7004 Within job satisfaction research it has been found that employees want jobs that demand a level of effort and resulting pride. ### Highlight (yellow) - 31 IKEA, effort, and valuing > Page 310 · Location 7089 One beginning teacher said to one of us after a field placement,